In today’s landscape, repetition is the norm. We live in a culture of references, allusions, remix and covers. This is the topic of Susana Tosca’s Sameness and Repetition, a recent Open-Access monograph, which provides a detailed framework for this phenomenon. Tosca analyzes art, games, digital media and more. She argues that repetition characterizes today’s mass media and digital media (22):
‘All contemporary media forms use repetitive strategies, regardless of their status as popular culture or high art, mass media or indie production. Media works quote and comment upon each other, integrate elements from previous periods, mix genres or deploy interactive mechanics’
Why exactly do we return to our favorite texts so often? How can we connect the concept of repetition to fandom? I provide explanations of this in Productive Fandom, amongst others, but I think it’s interesting to see where repetition exactly fits when we look at media and fan culture in particular.
The Pleasure of Repetition
Repetition is a pleasure in fandom. We love rewatching our favorite content, covering our favorite songs and seeing our favorite characters in new stories. I describe these feelings as part of affective reception in fandom, which can take many shapes. The pleasure of repetition is affect, but so is shipping, identifying with a particular character or role-playing in our favorite world. The pleasure of repetition hinges first of all on familiarity. Tosca describes this well (28):
‘We generally like to encounter something which we know. This pleasure has a double dimension, since it points inwards: ‘I get it/I recognise it’, and to the repeated thing, which we can develop a nostalgic attachment to’
The feeling of ‘I get it’ is closely related to intermediality and referencing. We understand a joke, visual or reference, and connect the dots. It’s related to status, feeling seen, understanding and taking pride in our knowledge. I would say that the feeling of ‘I get it’ is central to today’s media landscape of Marvel movies, Disney prequels and internet memes. But the reception of fans goes deeper than familiarity. A fan feels giddy when they see their favorite character pop up on their Instagram. A fan deeply appreciates rewriting a character in fan fiction or identifying with them in a game. Familiarity is also related to comfort. And love, even.
These sentiments are intimate and positive, and more than “I get it”. This drive can be explained because fandom shapes our lives. Our favorite stories can become a mattering map in our lives, to use a term by Lawrence Grossberg from 1992. Fandom is a roadmap and intimately connected with the social construction of our identity. In other words, identity, identification and even sincere feelings of love are common in fandom. That celebrity, character or sports team that we love sparks immense joy. That’s what affective reception is all about.
Repetition however gives yield to other emotions as well. Nostalgia, as mentioned in the quote above, is a very specific type of affect. Not only do we think back of something, but we reflect on it fondly in relation to our life course. This is a key driver in fandom, but also in media culture overall. We live in a time of reunion shows and concerts, vintage fashion styles and retro-technology such as record players.
Nostalgia is clearly capitalized upon in today’s media landscape, which can sometimes be at odds with the pleasure of rewatching the “good old thing”. Nostalgia can turn toxic when an object no longer represents what we associate with it. Fans can be vocal about recent installments of Star Wars. That pain can be subverted as well. Think for instance of how some fans intentionally hate-watch the Sex and The City reunion show And just Like That...
This repetition also leads to social cohesion, as Tosca explains well (29): ‘From an audience perspective, there is also a social dimension to repetition, which is about recognising things together or sharing with others.’ We see this type of intermediality a lot in internet memes, which are so popular as a form of communication because they rely on familiarity and in-jokes. In fandom, our favorite thing shapes deep connections with like-minded individuals. Repetition is connected to groups, status and communities.
The joy of repetition is fundamental in franchises, games, and digital media. There is a digital component to this as well. Recognizability is further amplified in algorithms, who provide us with more of the same content that we engaged with before. In fact, Tosca devotes a whole chapter on algorithmic repetition. Our favorite characters and stories are everywhere, not just as a marketing and storytelling tool, but also as a piece of content that online platforms feed back to us again and again. Digital platforms extrapolate our affect as fans and consumers, and monetize our attention. Repetition, in other words, is also an engagement strategy to lock us into specific platforms and services. It’s a business model that Instagram, TikTok and many other Big Tech companies thrive on.
From Pleasure to Failure
Within today’s culture, repetition is also a creative act. TikTok dances, YouTube covers, videogame streams – all of these practices hinge on source-texts and a great deal of creative repetition. Some of these products become commentary, rather than repetition, in that they strive for something original that builds on an existing text.
In most participatory cultures, we are inspired by repetition, but also want to transform an original text. Fandom is about sameness and familiarity, but not about the exact repetition of a thing. Many fan practices capture an idea of a character, a mood or a style, but do not try to imitate an exact work. This is where the concept of repetition may also fall short, since it can cover some audience practices, but does not do justice to the transformative practices that occur today.
For example, we can read cosplay as repetition of a character, but through that lens we might not see the originality a costumer brings to a character, the individual design choices that they made and their unique performativity. Repetition fails to bring to light transformation and innovation. We also need to look at what’s new, and what audiences add with their own creativity and commentary.
Another thing that we can consider is when repetition is not pleasurable. At this point, some audiences are also exhausted by repetition. Must we have yet another Star Wars prequel series or a localized adaptation of a film? Sometimes repetition fails, because it becomes formulaic or results in a cheap repetition of a beloved product.
Repetition becomes difficult when we enter the terrain of spoilers. Sometimes repetition is not treated positively, especially if it’s a teaser that ruins the original product. Many audiences care deeply about having an authentic first encounter with a media product, to the point that specific repetitions are not appreciated. We do not want to know some things before we engage with a product fully.
Some audiences actually find spoilers pleasurable. While fandom hinges on familiarity, it is also about anticipation. Gossip, spoilers and teasers are also appreciated by some communities. I personally love looking forward to things, and am obsessed with spoilers. While some fans may actively avoid spoilers, I always look for the latest news, trailers and theories about my favorite shows. In fact, I have been waiting for the new season of Star Trek Discovery for so long that each new bit of information makes my day. Anticipation, and speculation, are just as important to fandom as repetition.
The notion of time – looking forward, looking backwards – has interesting implications of fandom. Matt Hills wrote an interesting article about waiting in fandom. Fans are eager for new information and liveness. They live in a time of “always-on fandom”, in which they immediately want access to particular products. Fandom is not just repetition, but means grouping around what’s new. I would say that repetition allows itself for the study of time and meaning.
Studying Repetition
Media studies has to pay attention to repetition. It’s one of the most visible aspects of our media landscape, which is increasingly shaped by these acts. Production companies, content creators and audiences care about repetition. This is a skill by itself, and a format. Repetition is about mastering certain formulas, tropes, conventions and characters.
Whether we focus on dancing, music or writing, repetition helps us learn. Repetition also creates safe spaces. Familiarity makes us feel at home in a very saturated media landscape where we have many choices and niches to fall back on. What can we do? Above all, we need to understand why audiences engage in repetitive acts. Tosca suggests (172):
‘Interrogate the reasons behind repetitive practices like nostalgic song listening, binge watching of series or doom scrolling. What kinds of agency are being exercised? What contexts of use and needs are being covered?’
Audiences are not passively given more of the same. In fact, consumers make active choices every day on what to consume, not to consume, and what to rewatch. They have to choose their inspiration wisely and have limited time. Understanding this agency of consumers is key the coming years. As these communities become more segmented and specific, we need to consider individuals most of all. What drives them, and why?
Further reading:
Tosca, S. (2023). Repetition and Sameness in Contemporary Media Culture. Emerald Insight.
Nicolle Lamerichs 